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ACIRAN V1.4 for Windows
Linear AC Circuits Analysis
Introduction.
This Help file is a small subset of the printed manual supplied to registered
users.
ACIRAN is a Linear AC Circuit Analysis Program designed to ease small signal
ac analysis of active and passive circuits. ACIRAN can handle Resistors,
Capacitors, Inductors, Transformers(Ideal), Fets, Transistors, Operational
Amplifiers, Transmission Lines, and Voltage Controlled Current Sources.
To save time and ease design a number of Fet,Opamp and Transistor
model parameters have been supplied. More complex models can be built up using
passive components and Voltage Controlled Current sources.
Installation.
ACIRAN V1.4 was created using the Turbo Pascal for Windows Compiler (V 1.5)
and is able to support co-processors, if you machine has a floating point chip
this is detected by ACIRAN and used for all calculations, if you do not have a
co-processor, it is simulated by software.
Aciran will run under Windows 3.0 or 3.1 in Standard, or Extended mode, it
requires a 286 with at least 1Mbyte of ram.
Before using ACIRAN first make a backup copy on another disk, then put the
original in a safe place.
Some of the files are compressed. You must run the install program first to
unpack these to your working disk/directory. Select Run from the Program
Manager and enter a:install (or whatever drive you are installing from).
If you are in DOS, switch to the drive containing AFW and type win install.
Getting Started.
The main menu offers the following selection:
File Edit Config Data Analyse Results Graph Help
These are explained below.
File provides the following sub-menu
New
Open
Save
Save As
Printer SetUp
Exit
New is used to enter a new circuit description to ACIRAN and as it clears
any previous circuit from memory you should save any data that you have
in memory first. You will be given a warning first.
Open allows you to load a previously saved circuit for analysis or
modification. Circuits are expected to have extension .CIR or .CTS
(automatically appended by ACIRAN). You will be presented with a Filebox.
Use the cursor keys or mouse to highlight the file you wish to load and
then press return or click the OK button.
Save allows you to save your circuit description to disk. If you are entering
a large circuit then you should save it periodically.
Save_As allows you to save your circuit under a new name, perhaps to save
a diffenent version. Save_As will be called the first time a circuit is
saved as it will not have an existing filename.
Printer SetUp will allow you to configure your printer, e.g. select landscape
or portrait mode.
Exit will exit from ACIRAN and take you back to Windows. Any circuit
description held in memory will be lost so make sure you have saved any
data that you want to keep. ACIRAN will give a warning if you have not
saved your circuit and have made changes.
Edit allows you to make changes to the circuit description such as adding
or deleting components and changing component values. Edit has its own
sub-menu which will be described later.
Config allows you to set up certain flags and to request additional circuit
parameters such as impedance and return loss. This information is stored
along with the circuit details in the files. The Config dialog box will
be descibed later.
NetList allows you to inspect your circuit description by listing the
components,their values and circuit connections. You can send the data to
a printer by selecting Print from the system menu of the Netlist Window.
Analyse instructs ACIRAN to analyse the circuit in memory. Logarithmic and
Linear frequency sweeps are allowed. ACIRAN can also carry out Monte-Carlo
analysis if component tolerances have been entered.
Results offers the choice to Display or File. To view the results select
Display, to obtain a hard copy of these result the Print option should be
selected from the system menu of the Results Window. Results can also be
stored in a text file for later use.
Graph will plot various parameters such as Gain or phase against frequency.
A Hard copy can be obtained by selecting Print from the menu.
To enter a circuit select New and enter a circuit name. This is for your
benifit only, and appears in listings.
Next you will see a dialog box of component types, use the normal selection
methods to choose a component type. If the component type is Fet, Opamp
or Transistor you will be asked if you wish to load model parameters from
disk. If you select to do so you will be presented with another file
selection box, to choose the component model. More about this later.
An Example
A number of examples are included on the disk.
They will provide the most ideal method of learning ACIRAN. Enter the first
one from the keyboard. The circuit is shown below:
RC Filter.
R1
node 1 ________ node 2
0---------| |---------------------o-------------------------0
-------- |
100 +/- 0.5% |
----
| | R2
| |
| | 10 +/- 2%
INPUT ---- OUTPUT
|
o node 3
|
----- 0.001uF +/- 10%
_____
| C1
node 0 |
0_______________________________________o_________________________0
Select New from the File Menu.
Enter the circuit description 'RC Filter' <cr>.
When the Select component box is displayed,choose a resistor, and a form
will appear on the screen ,you will be asked for the component identifier,
enter 'R1' and press <TAB>.(Up to 5 characters can be entered for the
component identifier).
You will now move to the next input field, you will then be asked for the
value of R1. Enter 100 <TAB>.
You will then be asked for the tolerance in %. Enter 0.5 <TAB>. (The
leading Zero is essential).
Next you will be asked 'From Node', Enter 1 <TAB>, and then 'To node',
Enter 2 <TAB>.
The convention in ACIRAN is that the INPUT NODE is ALWAYS 1 and the GROUND
NODE is ALWAYS 0. The OUTPUT NODE is variable(more about this later).
Once you have completed the form you must press enter or click the OK
button to exit and save you data.
If you press Cancel the data will be ingored. You can move around the input
form changing the information using the edit keys, until you are happy with
what you have entered. Previously entered data that is presented and can be
accepted by entering <cr>.
Enter component R2 in the same way, it is not important which way round
the passive component is connected.
To enter C1 select Capacitor, and for the value enter 0.001u. the 'u' or 'U'
at the end tell ACIRAN that the value is in microfarads.
A number of multiplier options are allowed and upper or lower case can be
interchanged in all cases except 'M' and 'm'.
The multipliers accepted by ACIRAN are
'G' or 'g' Giga = x1E9
'M' Mega = x1E6
'K' or 'k' Kilo = x1E3
'm' milli = x1E-3
'U' or 'u' micro = x1E-6
'N' or 'n' nano = x1E-9
'P' or 'p' pico = x1E-12
These multipliers can be entered in a number of formats, eg 1k2, 1K2,1.2K
1200 12e2,12E2 and 1.2e3 are all acceptable and identical .
Now that the circuit has been entered click Cancel in response to next
component and you will be asked for the Output node.
If you press <cr> without entering any data ACIRAN will assign the highest
node used to the output node. In this circuit this is not the case and you
must enter 2 <cr>.
It is advisable to save your work and so as soon as the main menu returns
press Alt-F for File then Alt-S for Save, or use the mouse.
When asked for a file name enter any valid filename, remember to omit any file
extension.
You can check your circuit configuration by selecting NetList. The circuit
listing is displayed. You can scroll through it using the scroll bar on
the left of the window, or by pressing the up/down arrow keys or PageUp and
PageDn keys. To Print the data select Print from the windows system menu.
Check that the circuit connections are correct.
If you do not wish to enter the circuit yourself you can load it from the disk
by selecting Open at the main menu and loading 'EXAMPL1'.
Now analyse the circuit by Selecting Analyse at the main menu.
A frequency input form will appear, you must complete at least the
first three entries, some have minimum default values already
loaded.
You can select Log or Linear sweep from the Config box, the default is Log.
For the moment leave it as Log.
Now enter the start frequency. Enter 100k and press <TAB>.
Enter End frequency 100M (note capital 'M' for Megahertz).
Finally enter the number of frequency steps, 10 <cr>.
Leave the default number of passes as 1. Remember to press return or click
OK once you are satisfied with the input data.
If however you enter a number of Passes > 1 then ACIRAN will analyse your
circuit that number of times, and on each pass it will vary the component
values within the tolerance limits you specified for each component.
This feature will be discussed later.
ACIRAN will now analyse your circuit from 100 kilohertz to 100 megahertz
in 10 Logarithmic steps. The Sweep mode selected will remain in force in
future analysis unless you specifically change it. During Analysis the
frequency sweep mode and range are displayed and a counter shows the percentage
of the analysis completed. You Can abort the run by pressing Escape or
clicking on the Cancel button. In either case you will get a message when
the analysis is over. NOTE: Due to the numerically intensive nature of this
program there may be a few seconds delay between the user aborting the run
and Aciran recognising the abort message as it only checks the message queue
once during each frequency pass.
Select Results to see a table of results. Only Gain, Phase and Time Delay
are shown by default, to see impedance or return loss you must check the
boxes in the Config dialog box. To print select Print from system menu.
Close the Results window, or minimize it. Select Graph and choose
Magnitude. If your printer has Graphics capability you can obtain hard copies
by selecting Print from the menu of the Graph Window use the mouse or press
Alt + P.
The results for the RC Filters are shown below.
Transmission Results for RC Filter - See Printed Manual
Monte-Carlo
Select Analyse again, but this time change the number of tolerance passes
to 3 . It is not necessary to enter the Start and End frequencies again,or
the number of steps, as ACIRAN will remember the previous values. You can
however change any one of them (or all) if you wish. It is only necessary
that you do not try to violate the input requirements (such as End frequency
coming before Start frequency or a Log sweep on too small a frequency range).
Keep the same frequency range and number of steps as before, and so enter <TAB>
for each entry. This time during Analysis the window text shows the current
Monte-Carlo pass being executed. At each pass the circuit is analysed using
component values selected at random from within component tolerance limits.
After analysis ACIRAN will output the results but this time the heading Upper
Limit appears. This shows the upper limits reached during the Monte-Carlo
passes. The Lower Limits are printed next. If you select Graph you will see not
one but two graphs showing the spread of results obtained. This tolerance
analysis lets you see how your circuit is likely to vary in performance
due to component tolerances. In this example only 3 passes have been selected
but in practice several hundred passes may be needed to give a representative
picture.
However this would take a lot longer and for large circuits the time can become
excessive especially if there are a large number of frequencies.
The largest number of passes is 32767.
Editing
Having entered the circuit (either from the keyboard or from disk), it is
necessary to be able to modify it, in order to fine tune it.
At the Main menu select Edit, and a sub-menu appears with the
following selection:
Add
Change
Delete
Name
Output
and selection is made as before.
Add allows you to extend your circuit provided there is enough room to do
so. If you had previously saved your circuit (which you ought to do on a
regular basis) it will allow you to carry on building your circuit from where
you left off.
Change allows you to change a components identifier, Reference, value,
tolerance, and nodal connections. If you wish to change the component type
delete the component and add a new one of the correct type.
Delete allows the deletion of a component. You will be asked to confirm
that you wish to delete it.
Name allows you to change the circuit identifier (or name) of the circuit.
Output allows you to change the output node. If you wish you can look at
nodes internal to the circuit to see their response. In some cases a circuit
may have more than one output node, for example a circuit with one input
and two complementary outputs, perhaps with a constant phase shift between
the two outputs.
How to Modify a Circuit
Now change the value of C1 to shift the response of the RC Filter.
If you have exited ACIRAN restart it and load 'EXAMPL1'.
Select Edit and then select Change. You will be presented with a Pick
list, select C1, by double clicking it, or selecting it then clicking OK.
When asked for the value enter 0.002u <cr>.
The new value will be assigned to C1. Quit Editing and display the
circuit listing, check that C1 has the new value. Select Analyse and test
the circuit response. If you have not exited from ACIRAN you will not have
to re-enter the Start,End and frequency Step values,nor the Output node.
From the output results (and graphs) you can see the effect of the circuit
change. If you wish you can save this circuit, either as a new one under a
new filename,or you can overwrite the old circuit description.
Suppose for the sake of instruction it is decided that R2 should be changed
from a resistor to an inductor, this would give a notch Filter.
This can be done by first deleting R2 and then adding an inductor L1.
From the main menu select Edit, and then Delete. Select R2 from the list.
Select Add, Chose Inductor, Enter the component identity as 'L1', it's
value as 0.33u (0.33 micro-henry), Tolerance 10, and its connections
'From node' 2,'To node' 3.
Check the circuit listing.
Re-Analyse the circuit and check that it is now a notch filter. Use the
same frequency range. If you have not exited ACIRAN you need not re-enter
this data.
Now that you have changed the circuit you should give it a new name.
Enter the Edit menu and select Name.
Enter 'RLC Notch Filter' <cr>.
You may wish to save your new circuit under a new filename. Select Save_As.
Transmission Results for RLC - See Printed Manual
How to Configure Aciran.
------------------------
At the Main menu select 'C' for Config, and a dialog box appears with the
following selection:
Format Polar or Cartesian checkbox
Returnloss On or Off checkbox
Impedance On or Off checkbox
Sweep Logarithmic or Linear checkbox
Tolerance On or Off checkbox
Beep On or Off checkbox
Generator Reference Impedance edit window
Load Reference Impedance edit window
Format allows you to select the format used for impedance results. A
choice of Polar or Cartesian coordinates is available. Choice is made by
pressing clicking on the relevant checkbox, the other box will be unchecked.
If you select Polar (this is the default setting) then impedance results
will be output as a Magnitude and Phase angle. On the other hand if you
select Cartesian then impedance results will be output as a Real and Imaginary
part.
ReturnLoss is calculated with respect to the input and output referance
impedances. The default is 100Mohm real for both input and output. This means
that your circuit is analysed without taking into account the effect of
realistic source and load impedances.
You can change the Source and Load referance impedances to more practical
values and Input and Output impedances will be calcuated taking these
referances into account, or if you leave them unchanged you will get the open
circuit input and output impedances without loading effects. Once you have
changed the referance impedances they will remain changed until you load
or enter a new circuit, or specifically alter them. ALL config options are
saved along with the circuit data to save having to change it every time
the circuit file is loaded.
Impedance and ReturnLoss calculations are automatically performed, they are not
displayed unless checked in the config box. The Graphs are available always.
Once you have changed the referance impedances they will remain in effect
until you load or enter a new circuit, or specifically alter them again.
This will be illustrated later by an example.
Sweep allows you to change the sweep mode (Logarithmic or Linear). If you
start a New circuit the Sweep mode defaults to Logarithmic. This mode
will remain in force until changed by means of the Config Sweep command.
Tolerance simply toggles the Tolerance entries flag on and off. If, in order
to save time you selected no tolerance entries for a circuit, and at a later
date wanted to see the effect of tolerance on your circuit due to one or
more components, you can turn on tolerance by means of this switch. All the
components will originally have 0% tolerance but you can change this by
using the Change feature.
Beep allows you to turn off the warning beeps that are issued by ACIRAN
should you not wish to disturb others. The only exception is the case where
you are about to exit ACIRAN or load a new circuit, and have not saved your
work.
Generator
This option allows you to set up the source referance impedance. You may enter
values in the same format as that used for resistors (ie multipiers are
accepted).
Load
This option allows you to set up the load referance impedance. You may enter
values in the same format as that used for resistors (ie multipiers are
accepted).
Further Examples
You have now covered most aspects of ACIRAN with the exception of MODELS.
How to create your own MODELS using any wordprocessor is explained in the
Appendix, for the moment simply examine how you can use the ones supplied on
the disk. To do this look at some more examples which make use of MODELS.
The next circuit (EXAMPL2 on the disk) uses a single transistor in a common
emitter amplifier, and is shown below:
Transistor Amplifier See Printed Manual
Note that both power supply rails are numbered node zero. This is because
as far as AC analysis is concerned the power supply is an AC short circuit,
normally due to decoupling capacitors. You could add a DC Voltage Source
which is included for compatibility with PSpice. The Voltage source will be
treated as a short for AC Analysis purposes.
Enter the circuit as shown. When you select component type Transistor you
will be asked if you want to load model parameters, enter 'Y'.
You will be presented with a filebox similar to the type used for loading
circuit files, select a 'BC107'.
How to add more models will be covered later.
If you enter 'N' for loading a model file ACIRAN will assume that you are
unable to supply a model file and will ask you for details of the transistor
which must be entered from the keyboard.
In either case once the Transistor parameters are loaded you will be
presented with a Transistor Form, most of the details will be filled in if
you loaded model parameters from disk (This is also true for FET and OPAMP)
model files). You must enter a circuit identifier,(this is needed to select
the component from a Pick List during subsequent edit operations), also
for the Base, Collector, and Emitter node connections, and these should
be entered with reference to the above circuit.
The default collector current is 1mA, this can be altered once you have
calculated the DC current.
Analyse the circuit from 10 hertz to 10 Megahetrz in 10 Log steps. The resistor
R5 is not needed by ACIRAN but was added so that the results of the ACIRAN
analysis could be compared with the output from a proprietary Circuit Analysis
package that runs on a Vax under VMS4.6.
The results compared almost exactly at low frequencies and only at higher
frequencies could any significant differance be spotted.
This is due to the type of transistor model used by ACIRAN which is a simple
model requiring only 3 nodes. A more precise model can be used which requires
one extra node for each transistor, and the same circuit using just such a
model is illustrated in EXAMPL3.
Transistor Amplifier Results - See Printed Manual
A Transistor can be modeled using the Hybrid PI model as show below:
Hybrid PI Model See Printed Manual
The three nodes B,C,E are the same as before,however an extra node b' is
needed to model the Transistor base spreading resistance. The parameters
shown can be calculated from manufactures test data and are dependant on
the small signal 'h' parameters, the transition frequency FT, collector
current and the transistor internode capacitances.
In EXAMPL3 the BC107 transistor has been modeled in this way. Methods of
calculating the Hybrid parameters can be found in the Appendix. The only
new component type is the Voltage controlled Current Source 'gm'.
The Source is a four terminal device which can be used to model all kinds of
active devices such as Fets and Opamps. The From node is the current source,in
this case the Collector, and the To node is the current drain. The + control
node is the drive source for the current generator, here the Base, and the
- control node is the drive sink, for a CE circuit it is the Emitter.
Analyse EXAMPL3 over the same frequency range as EXAMPL2 and examine the
differences.
The rest of this manual will describe the circuit examples supplied on the
disk. Each example was chosen to exhibit certain features of ACIRAN.
All resistors are 1% and all capacitors 10% unless stated otherwise.
EXAMPL4
This is a simple transformer coupled stage connecting a 50 ohm source to a 1k
load. As ACIRAN references both Input and Output to ground it is necessary
to connect the transformer primary and secondary windings to ground for
analysis. In practice these connections could be omitted to provide DC
isolation.
In transformer coupled amplifier stages where the second stage is referenced
to ground there is no problem and the transformer can be connected as normal.
As stated before ACIRAN models Ideal transformers, whereas in reality
transformers have winding resistance and inductance.These imperfections
are modeled by adding resistors and inductors to the circuit as shown below.
RP and RS are the primary and secondary DC winding resistances for the
transformer. The inductors LP and LS simulate the transformer inductances.
The primary has 1000 turns and the secondary 1080, therefore as a ratio to
one is required, enter 1.080 into the transformer form at the ratio field.
Analyse the circuit from 20 to 20k in 10 Logarithmic steps.
Transformer Coupled Stage See Printed Manual
Transformer Stage Results - Stage See Printed Manual
EXAMPL5
This is an Elliptic-function Bandpass Filter. The filter is to work into
a 10K Load from a 10K Source. Select Config and check ReturnLoss.
You should then change the source and Load referance impedances,Zin and
Zout, the default is 100Mohms real. You can change these to 10K real and
0 ohms imaginary.
Quit Config and analyse the filter. The filter has a passband from
approximately 15khz to 20khz. Using a Linear sweep examine the response
from 12khz to 24khz in 10 steps. Notice that the filter response changes
sharply below 15khz and above 20khz. Now examine the response from 15khz
to 20 khz in 40 steps, in order to see how much ripple exists in the passband.
Elliptic-Function Bandpass filter See Printed Manual
Transmission Results for Elliptic BandPass Filter - See Printed Manual
EXAMPL6
This is a VHF/Video amplifier using an FET.The circuit is show below:
Again note that both power rails are at node 0.
Analyse the circuit from 1M to 200M on a Log sweep.
Fet Amplifier See Printed Manual
Fet Amplifier Results - See Printed Manual
EXAMPL7
This example is of a Twin-T notch filter and illustrates the use of an Opamp.
The circuit is shown below:
Twin-T Filter See Printed Manual
Analyse the circuit from 10 hertz to 2k hertz in 10 Linear steps.
Note that the notch frequency occurs at about 1khz.
Twin-T Filter Results - See Printed Manual
EXAMPL8
This is a Single Bandpass Filter section. It has a response curve which
is the inverse of exampl7. It is designed to have a centre frequency of
3.6khz and a 3dB bandwidth of 60Hz. Analyse the circuit on a Linear sweep
from 3.0khz to 4.5khz in 10 steps.
Note that R6 is variable in order that the circuit response can be finely
adjusted.Experiment by changing the value of R6.
Single Bandpass Filter See Printed Manual
Single BandpassFilter Results - See Printed Manual
EXAMPL9
This circuit is an active delay line with a gain of 20dB and a 100uS constant
within 3% to 3khz. Up till now the circuit Amplitude has been of paramount
importance, but this is not always the case. The Time or Group delay has
an important part to play especially in telecommunication circuits where
poor Group delay response can introduce distortion.
It is also possible to look at the open circuit input and output impedance.
In this example select Config and then select Cartesian format. Do not
change the referance impedance from the default of 100Mohms.
In this example the circuit provides not only gain but almost constant
Time-delay for frequencies up to 3khz.
Analyse the circuit on a Linear sweep from 100hz to 3khz.
100uS delay Line See Printed Manual
Delay Line Results - See Printed Manual
EXAMPL10
This is quite a large circuit and demonstrates how ACIRAN can handle even
the most complex analysis.
LowPass Filter See Printed Manual
Low Pass Filter Results - See Printed Manual
The circuit is a five stage GIC Elliptic-function Low Pass filter. It is
to have low insertion loss and ripple in the pass band up to 260Hz, and
to have a minimum attenuation outside the passband of 60dB at 270Hz.
In practice variable resistors are needed to adjust the GIC to obtain the
desired response.
Analyse the circuit from 100 to 300Hz in 10 Linear steps. This circuit will
take several minutes to Analyse.
Exampl11
This example uses a Transmission line as a quarter wavelength transformer to
match an impedance of 95 ohms real to a load of 50 ohms real. The frequency of
interest is 150Mhz (2m wavelength) which gives a line length of 50cm (2m/4).
The impedace of the line to give the required match is equal to the square root
of the source impedance multiplied by the load impedance ie.
sqrt(95 * 50) = 69ohms
Transmission Line Transformer See Printed Manual
Where Zo = characteristic impedance
L = length in cm
Er = relative permeability
The configure menu is entered and the load impedance set to 50 + j 0.00 and
the generator impedance to 95 + j 0.00. Select Return loss and Linear Sweep.
Analyse the circuit from 148Mhz to 152Mhz in 4 steps, the results are:-
Transmission Results for Transmission Line Transformer - See Printed Manual
Exampl12
This example makes use of transmission lines to match a source impedance to
a complex load by means of a Stub Tuner. The theory of Stub Tuner matching is
beyond the scope of this manual and the reader should refer to relevant text
books.
Stub Tuner See Printed Manual
A Stub can be open or short circuit, it is better to use a short otherwise
it tends to radiate. The circuit was analysed over the same frequency range
as before. The source generator was set to 50 + j 0.00 ohms and the load set
to 100 + j 50.00, ie complex.
Transmission Results for Single Stub Match - See Printed Manual
Where Zo = characteristic impedance
L = length in cm
Er = relative permeability
At first appearance the passive line seems to have a gain, this is due to
the impedance transformation, and although a voltage gain is produced the
current gain is less than unity and so is the power gain.
Appendix
ACIRAN uses model files to hold descriptions of Transistors Fets and Opamps.
You can create your own model files and add them to the Models directory using
any text editor or wordprocessor such as WordStar (Do not use any control
codes). Details can be found in the Printed Manual.
The model for the BC107 transistor used in EXAMPL2 is
BC107
2.7k
18U
192
35%
300M
The file consists of lines of text. Each line contains ONE and only one
parameter and all parameters MUST be supplied. The information can be obtained
from manufacturers data sheets.
The first line contains the component name 'BC107' ( max of 8 characters).
Next comes the value of hie, followed by hoe and hfe. The tolerance value
refers to hfe.
Transistor hfe values can vary enormously even for the same type of transistor.
The 'h' parameters of a transistor vary with temperature and collector current.
Last comes the value of FT. Note the use of multipliers, hie could just have
easily been written as 27e2, 27E2 or 2700. Transistor model files MUST be
given the extension .TRN.
The Fet model file for the 2N4393 Fet used in EXAMPL6 is shown below:
2N4393
15m
45%
11.5p
2p
Again the same rules apply as for the transistor file. First comes the name,
followed by the transconductance gm, the tolerance for gm, the Fet capacitances
Cgs and Cgd. Fet model files MUST have the file extension .FET.
The last model type supported by ACIRAN is the Opamp model. The model file
for the LM124 opamp is listed below:
LM124
100M
600
100
1M
50%
First comes the component name followed by the input impedance and the output
impedance. Next is the open loop gain in dB and the Gain Bandwidth Product GBW.
The tolerance refers to the open loop gain. Most opamps have a very high
open loop gain in excess of 100dB. Manufacures data sheets give conservative
values for open loop gain and it is well controlled.
Opamp model files MUST have the extension .AMP.
The Hybrid Pi model for a Transistor is illustrated below: See Printed Manual
The symbols have the following meaning:
rbb = Base spreading resistance
rbe = Input impedance
rbc = Feedback Impedance (effect of Vce changes on Base modulation)
rce = C-E Impedance
Cc = Collector-junction barrier capacitance
Ce = Overlap diode capacitance
gm = Transistor Transconductance
If the CE 'h' parameters are known at low frequencies at a given collector
current Ic (see manufacturers data sheets) then the impedances can be
calculated in the following order:
|Ic| |Ic ma |
gm = ---- = --------
VT 26
hfe
rbc = ---
gm
rbb = hie - rbe
rbe
rbc = ---
hre
1 1
rce = ------------- where gbc = ---
hoe-(1+hfe)gbc rbc
The capacitance Cc is the measured CB output capacitance with the input
open (Ie = 0), and is usually specified by the manufacturers as Cob.
Ce is experimentally determined from a measurement of FT, the frequency
at which the CE short-circuit current gain drops to unity.
gm
Ce = ------- PI = 3.14159
2*PI*FT
Typical values for a Hybrid PI model at room temperature and for Ic = 1.3mA
are
gm = 50mA/V rbb = 100 ohms rbe = 1k rbc = 4Mohm
rce = 80Kohm Cc = 3pF Ce = 100pF
END.